Ethnic nationalism in Nigeria has deep historical roots. Before British colonial rule, the area now called Nigeria consisted of autonomous polities, kingdoms, and empires with distinct governance systems, cultural practices, and languages. Northern Nigeria was dominated by the Sokoto Caliphate, the Yoruba in the west by the Oyo Empire, and the Kingdom of Benin controlled parts of the south. The Igbo in the southeast were organised through decentralised village systems, relying on kinship, age-grades, and councils for governance (Ajayi, 2013; Heerten & Moses, 2018).
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The 1914 amalgamation of Northern and Southern Protectorates merged these diverse groups into a single administrative unit. Intended for administrative efficiency, it combined communities with differing political, religious, and cultural traditions, laying the groundwork for inter-ethnic competition and regional tension. While the merger did not create a shared national identity immediately, it established a single political framework that would later influence nationalist and separatist movements.
Colonial Policies and Ethnic Division
British colonial rule reinforced ethnic and regional differences through administrative and educational policies. In Northern Nigeria, indirect rule empowered emirs and preserved Islamic governance, often excluding broader segments of society from political participation. In Southern Nigeria, Christian missionary education produced a Western-educated elite, particularly among the Igbo and Yoruba, who became influential in commerce and colonial administration. These disparities in governance, education, and economic opportunity contributed to regional inequality and perceptions of marginalisation (Osaghae & Suberu, 2005).
The 1946 Richards Constitution introduced formal regionalisation, dividing Nigeria into Northern, Eastern, and Western regions. While intended to accommodate ethnic diversity, the constitution reinforced ethno-regional dominance and institutionalised ethnic consciousness as a political tool. Minority groups within regions were frequently politically marginalised, reinforcing competition between communities.
Post-Independence Ethnic Nationalism
During the First Republic (1960–1966), political mobilisation often reflected regional and ethnic affiliations. The Northern Peoples’ Congress (NPC) dominated the North, the Action Group (AG) represented the Yoruba West, and the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) held sway in the East. Ethnic-based political organisation prioritised regional interests over national cohesion, contributing to tensions that culminated in the 1966 military coups and the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). The southeastern secessionist state of Biafra reflected Igbo fears of marginalisation, political exclusion, and inequitable distribution of resources (Heerten & Moses, 2018).
Although these parties represented specific ethnic constituencies, it is important to note that policy favouritism was often shaped by regional political dominance and historical administrative structures rather than deliberate exclusion by elites.
Conceptual Clarifications
Ethnic Identity: Recognition of belonging to a group with shared ancestry, language, culture, and traditions. In Nigeria, identities are reinforced through both kinship and social-political interaction. Constructivist theory emphasises that ethnic identities gain salience in particular social, political, and economic contexts (Erikson, 1968).
Ethnic Nationalism: The framing of political demands in terms of ethnicity, often including self-determination, group rights, and claims for equitable representation (Smith, 1981). In Nigeria, ethnic nationalism is activated when groups perceive exclusion or marginalisation in governance, resource distribution, or cultural recognition.
Ethnicity: The mobilisation of ethnic identity for political, economic, or social purposes. Colonial policies, including indirect rule, regionalisation, and classification of populations, institutionalised divisions that encouraged elite competition and inter-group rivalry (Osaghae, 1995).
Economic and Social Dynamics
Economic disparities among regions and ethnic groups reinforced ethnic consciousness. During the colonial era, opportunities in civil service, contracts, and regional development projects were shaped by administrative structures and access to education. The Western Region’s emphasis on education and public service produced a class of Yoruba professionals, while the Igbo in the East similarly focused on literacy, commerce, and mobility. Northern political structures under indirect rule created regional advantages, reflecting historical legacies rather than uniform policy favouritism (Osaghae & Suberu, 2005).
Competition for political power and access to resources was framed along ethnic lines, contributing to enduring rivalries. Social and occupational inequalities, along with regional disparities in infrastructure and education, intensified ethnic mobilisation and the political salience of identity.
Contemporary Implications
Ethnic nationalism persists in Nigeria, influencing demands for autonomy, political representation, and control over resources. Regional and ethnic identities intersect with religious and class differences, shaping voting patterns and political alliances. Persistent inequalities, elite dominance, and historical grievances continue to challenge national cohesion, contributing to movements that seek recognition or self-determination, particularly in the South-East.
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Author’s Note
Ethnic nationalism in Nigeria results from historical processes, colonial legacies, socio-economic inequalities, and elite competition. The 1914 amalgamation, indirect rule, regionalisation, and differential access to education and governance entrenched ethnic consciousness, creating divisions that continue to influence contemporary politics. Addressing these challenges requires equitable resource distribution, inclusive governance, and promotion of a national consciousness that respects diversity.
References
Ajayi, S. A. (2013). The 1914 Amalgamation and the challenges of National Integration in Post-Colonial Nigeria. Ibadan: TONDA Foundation.
Heerten, L., & Moses, A. D. (2018). The Nigeria-Biafra War: Postcolonial Conflict and Ethnic Nationalism. Cambridge University Press.
Osaghae, E. E., & Suberu, R. T. (2005). A History of Identities, Violence and Stability in Nigeria. CRISE Working Paper.
