When Nigeria attained independence on 1 October 1960, it inherited a federal structure shaped by British colonial rule. This system had evolved through the Richards (1946), Macpherson (1951), and Lyttleton (1954) constitutions, each expanding regional autonomy. By 1954, three regions Northern, Western, and Eastern, had emerged, each dominated by one of the country’s major ethnic groups: Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo, respectively.
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The 1960 Independence Constitution established a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe served as Governor-General, while Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, leader of the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), became Prime Minister. Each region exercised significant authority over education, local governance, and taxation, creating a delicate balance between autonomy and unity. However, this balance reflected colonial administrative convenience rather than a shared national consensus.
In 1963, Nigeria became a Republic, replacing the British monarch with a President. Yet the fundamental tensions, regional competition, and mutual mistrust remained unresolved, shaping the instability that followed.
Key Political Developments: The First Republic and Regional Tensions
Nigeria’s First Republic (1960–1966) was dominated by three regionally based parties:
- NPC, led by Sir Ahmadu Bello, and represented federally by Balewa;
- NCNC, led by Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe, drawing support mainly from the East;
- Action Group (AG), led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was dominant in the West.
The NPC–NCNC coalition formed the first federal government, but it was an uneasy partnership driven more by pragmatism than shared vision. Political competition often followed regional and ethnic lines, undermining national cohesion.
The Western Region crisis (1962–65), which began with a power struggle between Awolowo and his deputy, Samuel Akintola, soon escalated into violence. Federal intervention under emergency powers exposed the fragility of regional autonomy and revealed deep mistrust between federal and local authorities.
A major reform came in 1963 with the creation of the Mid-Western Region, following a constitutional referendum in the Benin and Delta provinces. It was the only region created through peaceful and democratic means, reflecting the federation’s limited but real capacity for adjustment.
However, the 1964 federal elections and 1965 Western elections were marred by irregularities and intimidation. As public confidence eroded, the legitimacy of the federal system collapsed, paving the way for military intervention.
Economic and Social Dimensions of Federalism
Nigeria’s early federation was sustained by fiscal federalism based on the principle of derivation; each region retained a share of revenues from its exports. The North thrived on groundnut, the West on cocoa, and the East on palm produce.
This system encouraged regional innovation but widened developmental disparities. The Western Region’s social reforms, such as free primary education, contrasted with the slower pace of modernisation in the North, where colonial policy had prioritised traditional administration over Western education. These disparities deepened regional suspicion and hampered integration.
The discovery and export of crude oil in the late 1950s transformed Nigeria’s economy. Yet, oil only overtook agriculture in the early 1970s, after the Civil War. The rising centralisation of oil revenue shifted financial power from regions to the federal government, a trend that permanently altered the balance of Nigeria’s federal structure.
Colonial Legacy and the Crisis of Unity
British colonial policy had left Nigeria deeply divided in political culture and development. The North was governed through indirect rule, preserving emirate hierarchies, while the South adopted Western education and administration. The result was uneven development and enduring mistrust.
As Coleman (1958) and Dudley (1968) noted, Nigerian federalism emerged not from national consensus but from colonial pragmatism. This imbalance became evident after independence.
In January 1966, young army officers led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu overthrew the Balewa government in Nigeria’s first coup d’état. General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi assumed power and sought to unify the country under Decree No. 34, which abolished the federal system. The move provoked resistance, especially from the North, and led to a counter-coup in July 1966. The resulting violence and mistrust set the stage for the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970) under General Yakubu Gowon, who remained in power until 1975.
Legacy and Continuing Evolution
Despite its early collapse, federalism endured through adaptation. Successive military governments expanded Nigeria’s political structure from four regions in 1963 to twelve states in 1967, then nineteen in 1976, and eventually thirty-six by 1996. While this proliferation sought to promote inclusion and reduce ethnic tension, it also centralised power around the federal government.
The 1979 and 1999 Constitutions reaffirmed Nigeria’s federal identity under a presidential system, but fiscal dependence on the centre persists. Contemporary debates on restructuring, resource control, and “true federalism” reflect ongoing efforts to reconcile diversity with unity.
Author’s note
Federalism in Nigeria after independence has been shaped by compromise, conflict, and reform. Born from colonial necessity, tested by political rivalry, and reshaped by military rule, it remains the core framework of Nigeria’s governance.
Its survival reflects both resilience in adapting to crises and fragility in its persistent imbalance between centre and periphery. For Nigeria to fulfil the promise of its federation, governance must rest on equity, accountability, and mutual respect among its diverse peoples.
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References
Coleman, J. S. (1958). Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. University of California Press.
Dudley, B. J. (1968). Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria. Frank Cass.
Falola, T. & Heaton, M. M. (2008). A History of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press.
Suberu, R. T. (2001). Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria. United States Institute of Peace Press.
Post, K. & Vickers, M. (1973). Structure and Conflict in Nigeria, 1960–1966. University of Wisconsin Press.
