Between the 10th and 19th centuries, Hausa-speaking societies in what is now northern Nigeria and southern Niger developed a network of thriving city-states. These urban centres, Kano, Katsina, Zaria (Zazzau), Daura, Rano, Gobir, and Biram, evolved from clusters of agricultural and ironworking settlements into powerful political and commercial hubs.
Their prosperity was closely linked to trans-Saharan trade and the gradual spread of Islam, shaping West Africa’s cultural and political history. This article traces their verified historical development from early urbanization to their incorporation into the Sokoto Caliphate in the early nineteenth century.
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Origins and Founding Traditions
Archaeological and linguistic evidence indicates that Hausa-speaking peoples established settled agricultural communities in the savannah by the first millennium CE. Over time, some of these communities grew into fortified towns (birane) governed by kings known as sarki.
The Kano Chronicle, a local historical record written in Arabic script, preserves the names of early rulers such as Gijimasu and Yaji, alongside accounts of city fortifications, trade expansion, and royal reforms ([Palmer, 1908]; [Last, 1980]). Though its chronology is partly symbolic, archaeological findings at sites like Kano and Katsina confirm continuous occupation since the 10th–11th centuries ([UNESCO, 2022]).
A foundational Hausa legend, the Bayajidda story, tells of a hero who arrived in Daura, slew a serpent that blocked access to water, and married the local queen. Their descendants supposedly founded the Hausa Bakwai, or “seven legitimate states.” Historians regard this as a myth of political origins, expressing unity and legitimacy rather than literal descent ([Smith, 1978]).
Urban Growth and Trans-Saharan Trade
By the 11th–13th centuries, the Hausa city-states occupied strategic positions linking North Africa, the Sahel, and West Africa’s forest zones. Their economies thrived on trade in textiles, leather goods, grains, kola nuts, and metalwork, while importing salt, horses, books, and luxury goods from across the Sahara ([Bovill, 1995]; [Lovejoy, 1978]).
The Kurmi Market in Kano, traditionally founded or expanded under Sarki Muhammad Rumfa (r. 1463–1499), became one of West Africa’s most active commercial centres. Its networks reached Tripoli, Ghadames, Timbuktu, and Gao, confirming Kano’s prominence in trans-Saharan commerce ([UNESCO, 2022]).
Trade was also an avenue for cultural diffusion. Muslim traders introduced Arabic literacy, religious scholarship, and new ideas about governance, laying the foundations for Islamic institutions in Hausaland ([Smith, 1978]; [Last, 1967]).
The Gradual Spread of Islam
Islam reached Hausaland gradually through merchants, scholars, and travellers from North Africa, Bornu, and Mali beginning around the 12th century ([Hunwick, 1997]). Conversion initially took place among rulers and elite families, who used Islam to strengthen legitimacy and connect with trans-Saharan partners.
By the 15th century, rulers like Muhammad Rumfa of Kano had embraced Islam as a guiding ideology for reform. Rumfa reorganized Kano’s administration, promoted Islamic education, built mosques, and appointed Muslim scholars as advisers ([Palmer, 1908]; [Smith, 1978]).
During his reign, the North African scholar Muhammad al-Maghīlī visited Kano and Katsina, offering legal and theological advice. While often credited with reform influence, modern historians emphasize that al-Maghīlī validated existing local initiatives rather than initiating Islamization himself ([Hunwick, 1997]).
By the 16th century, Islam had become embedded in urban life, coexisting with indigenous traditions in a dynamic process of religious and cultural blending ([Lovejoy, 1978]).
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Political Organisation and Urban Life
The Hausa city-states shared similar political institutions. Each was ruled by a sarki, assisted by a council of nobles, Islamic scholars (ulama), and leaders of traders’ and artisans’ guilds. Authority was often negotiated among these factions, reflecting the balance between royal, religious, and commercial interests ([Last, 1967]).
Urban design reflected this political order. The Kano city walls, first built under Sarki Gijimasu (r. c.1095–1134) and expanded by later rulers, enclosed royal palaces, markets, and mosques. Archaeological surveys show multiple construction phases, with sections rising up to 10–12 metres, marking one of Africa’s largest ancient city walls ([UNESCO, 2022]).
The Gidan Rumfa (Emir’s Palace), built during Rumfa’s reign, stands as a symbol of pre-colonial architectural sophistication and continuity of governance, still functioning today as the Emir’s residence.
Trade, Slavery, and Cultural Exchange
Slavery existed within Hausa societies but did not dominate their economies in the early period. Most enslaved people worked as domestic servants, soldiers, or agricultural labourers. Large-scale export of slaves via the trans-Saharan routes increased later, especially between the 17th and 19th centuries, when external demand rose ([Lovejoy, 2000]).
The Hausa economy’s core remained craft production, agriculture, and trade. The cities were cosmopolitan centres where people from diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds interacted. The development of Ajami script (Hausa written in Arabic letters) deepened literacy and fostered the growth of Islamic scholarship and historical documentation ([Boyd & Mack, 1997]).
Rivalry and Transformation
Rivalries among Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Daura, and Gobir were frequent, often over trade routes, tribute, and access to resources. Yet these states maintained shared linguistic and cultural identity, reinforcing the broader Hausa civilization ([Smith, 1978]).
By the late 18th century, political corruption, religious syncretism, and social inequality provoked reformist critique. In 1804, the scholar Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani Jihad, launching a reformist movement that culminated in the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate. Within a decade, most Hausa city-states were incorporated into this new Islamic confederation ([Last, 1967]; [Hogben & Kirk-Greene, 1966]).
Although they lost independent status, Hausa cities retained their commercial and intellectual vitality within the Caliphate’s framework, with emirs continuing many pre-existing institutions under Islamic oversight.
Legacy
The legacy of the Hausa city-states endures prominently in modern northern Nigeria
- Kanoand Katsina remain leading centres of commerce and Islamic scholarship.
- The Ajami writing systemcontinues to influence Hausa literature and religious education.
- Historic landmarks like the Kano city walls, Gidan Rumfa, and Kurmi Marketrepresent living heritage.
- The emirate system, rooted in the Hausa city-state model, remains central to local governance and cultural life.
These legacies demonstrate that Hausa civilization was dynamic, adaptive, and globally connected, merging indigenous political traditions with Islamic learning and trade networks that spanned the Sahara and beyond.
Author’s Note
The Hausa city-states stand as a testament to Africa’s long history of urbanism, literacy, and organized governance before European colonization. Their interaction with the trans-Saharan world forged cultural and intellectual ties that shaped the history of the wider Sahel. Their story, grounded in evidence from archaeology, chronicles, and scholarship, reveals a civilization that was neither static nor isolated but one that thrived on exchange, adaptation, and reform.
References:
Bovill, E. W. (1995). The Golden Trade of the Moors: West African Kingdoms in the Fourteenth Century. Oxford University Press.
Hogben, S. J., & Kirk-Greene, A. H. M. (1966). The Emirates of Northern Nigeria: A Preliminary Survey of Their Historical Traditions. Oxford University Press.
Hunwick, J. O. (1997). Islam in Africa: Friend or Foe? Northwestern University Press.
Last, M. (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. Longman.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2022). Ancient Kano City Walls and Associated Sites.
