Nigeria’s First Republic (1960–1966) represented the country’s first major attempt at self-rule after gaining independence from Britain on 1 October 1960. The nation adopted a federal parliamentary system modelled on the British Westminster framework, combining a central government with considerable regional autonomy. The new political order, however, inherited the deep divisions and institutional weaknesses of the colonial period.
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At independence, Nigeria comprised three regions Northern, Western, and Eastern each with its own premier, legislature, and distinct political identity. In 1963, a Mid-Western Region was carved out of the Western Region following agitation by minority groups seeking greater political representation. The creation of the Mid-West aimed to reduce ethnic marginalisation but also reinforced regional consciousness across the federation.
Three dominant political parties defined the political landscape:
- The Northern People’s Congress (NPC), led by Sir Ahmadu Bello, held sway in the North.
- The National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC), under Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, was strongest in the East.
- The Action Group (AG), founded by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, controlled the Western Region.
Though each party professed national ideals, they were largely regionally and ethnically rooted an enduring structural flaw that weakened the foundations of national unity.
Key Political Developments and Personalities
The 1959 federal election, organised by the departing British administration, laid the groundwork for the new government. No single party secured an outright majority. The NPC emerged as the largest party and entered a coalition with the NCNC to form a federal government. Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (NPC) became Prime Minister, while Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe assumed the largely ceremonial role of Governor-General.
When Nigeria became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1963, the office of Governor-General was replaced by that of President, and Azikiwe became the first to hold the position. Nonetheless, executive authority remained firmly with Prime Minister Balewa, consistent with the parliamentary model.
Regional leaders pursued diverse priorities:
- Sir Ahmadu Bello, Premier of the Northern Region, prioritised agricultural development, Islamic education, and traditional governance.
- Chief Awolowo, Premier of the Western Region, emphasised modernisation through education, welfare, and industrial growth.
- Dr. Azikiwe, the foremost nationalist of the East, promoted commerce, industrialisation, and pan-African diplomacy.
Despite their individual vision and charisma, ideological divisions and competition for federal dominance undermined national cohesion.
Economic and Social Changes
Nigeria’s economy in the early 1960s remained primarily agrarian, with distinct regional specialisations: groundnuts and cotton in the North, cocoa in the West, and palm produce in the East. Regional governments invested their agricultural revenues in infrastructure, education, and public services.
The Western Region, under Awolowo’s leadership, introduced Africa’s first large-scale free primary education policy and free health schemes. These initiatives significantly increased literacy and improved living standards, setting a high benchmark for social policy in postcolonial Africa though some other African states, such as Ghana, were implementing similar programmes around the same time.
The Eastern Region promoted entrepreneurship and industrialisation, while the Northern Region focused on gradual social reforms within its conservative Islamic context. Nevertheless, disparities widened as the South urbanised faster and literacy rates rose more sharply there.
The discovery of commercial crude oil in Oloibiri (Eastern Region) in 1956 introduced a new economic dimension. However, during the First Republic, oil contributed only modestly to national revenue compared to agriculture. Its long-term political significance was still emerging but would later dominate Nigeria’s economy.
Colonial Legacy and the Federal Challenge
Nigeria’s colonial heritage left a federation built on unequal development and deep-seated regional loyalties. British indirect rule had reinforced ethnic and traditional divisions, favouring administrative convenience over integration. The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution, which formalised federalism, institutionalised regional autonomy but failed to promote cross-regional cooperation.
At independence, the new elite inherited fragile institutions and a political culture shaped by competition for colonial patronage rather than national collaboration. The federal structure lacked effective dispute-resolution mechanisms, allowing regional conflicts to escalate unchecked. The imbalance between regional power and central authority became apparent when disputes arose over revenue allocation, census results, and elections.
Political Crises and the Republic’s Collapse
The stability of the First Republic unravelled rapidly after 1962. A bitter conflict between Awolowo and his deputy, Chief Samuel Ladoke Akintola, split the Action Group, paralysing the Western Region. The federal government, dominated by the NPC, declared a state of emergency in the West and later prosecuted Awolowo and his allies on treasonable felony charges a move widely seen as politically motivated.
Meanwhile, a disputed national census (1962–1963) deepened mistrust among regions. The South accused the North of inflating its population figures to gain parliamentary dominance and higher federal revenue. This controversy exposed the fragility of Nigeria’s demographic and political balance.
The 1964 federal elections further discredited the civilian administration. Marked by boycotts, rigging, and intimidation, they produced a government lacking legitimacy. The situation deteriorated in the 1965 Western Regional elections, which were marred by blatant irregularities and sparked widespread violence known as Operation Wetie a campaign of arson and killings that plunged the region into anarchy.
Amid corruption, electoral fraud, and administrative paralysis, public confidence in the civilian leadership evaporated. The federal structure, meant to preserve unity, instead amplified regional rivalries.
On 15 January 1966, a group of young military officers led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu launched Nigeria’s first coup d’état. Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa, Premier Ahmadu Bello, and several senior officers were assassinated. President Nnamdi Azikiwe was abroad at the time and thus escaped harm. The Premier of the Western Region, Chief Akintola, was also killed during the uprising.
In the coup’s aftermath, Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, an Igbo officer, assumed power as Head of State, dissolving the federal and regional legislatures. His unification policies and the ethnically perceived nature of the coup provoked resentment, especially in the North, leading to a counter-coup in July 1966. The ensuing ethnic violence and political breakdown paved the way for the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970).
Legacy and Impact
Although it lasted barely six years, the First Republic profoundly shaped Nigeria’s political evolution. It revealed the challenges of managing a multi-ethnic federal democracy in a newly independent African state. Its collapse highlighted key structural weaknesses fragile institutions, ethnic mistrust, uneven development, and the absence of internal party democracy.
Yet, the period left lasting legacies. It established federalism as Nigeria’s governing framework, introduced a culture of regional development planning, and broadened access to education and political participation. Lessons from the First Republic informed subsequent constitutions and continue to influence debates on resource control, power-sharing, and national integration.
The democratic aspirations of the 1960s though unfulfilled planted the seeds of civic consciousness that endured through years of military rule. The First Republic remains both a cautionary tale and a foundational chapter in Nigeria’s quest for stable democracy.
Nigeria’s First Republic symbolised both freedom and fragility. Its founding leaders sought unity in diversity but inherited a colonial state designed more for control than cohesion. The Republic’s collapse stemmed from unresolved tensions among ethnicity, regionalism, and power distribution issues that continue to challenge Nigeria’s democracy today.
Understanding this era remains crucial for appreciating the enduring complexities of governance and national unity in postcolonial Nigeria.
Author’s Note
This verified historical account of Nigeria’s First Republic (1960–1966) is based on primary and secondary academic sources. It corrects earlier inaccuracies and presents a factual synthesis of political, economic, and institutional developments that defined Nigeria’s first democratic experiment.
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References
Coleman, James S. Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. University of California Press, 1960.
Dudley, Billy J. Instability and Political Order: Politics and Crisis in Nigeria. Ibadan University Press, 1973.
Falola, Toyin & Heaton, Matthew M. A History of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Falola, Toyin (ed.). Nigeria in the Twentieth Century. Carolina Academic Press, 2002.
