When Nigeria gained independence on 1 October 1960, it emerged as Africa’s most populous state and one of its most promising democracies. The First Republic, governed under a federal constitution modelled on Britain’s Westminster parliamentary system, aimed to balance regional autonomy with national unity. Yet within just six years, optimism turned into disillusionment and violence.
The political turmoil that engulfed Nigeria’s First Republic (1960–1966) did not arise overnight. It reflected deep-rooted ethnic, regional, and political divisions that the postcolonial federal system failed to reconcile. Corruption, electoral malpractice, and partisan policing undermined confidence in democracy. Understanding how this breakdown occurred is key to explaining Nigeria’s later cycles of instability.
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Federalism and Regional Rivalries
At independence, Nigeria was a federation of three powerful regions, the Northern, Western, and Eastern Regions, each with its own premier, legislature, and civil service. In 1963, a fourth region, the Mid-West, was created from the West after a plebiscite, partly to ease ethnic tensions.
The political parties reflected these regional identities:
- Northern People’s Congress (NPC):Led by Sir Ahmadu Bello, Premier of the North. The NPC represented the conservative Hausa–Fulani establishment and dominated federal politics through its size and population.
- Action Group (AG):Led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Premier of the Western Region until 1959, supported mainly by the Yoruba.
- National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC):Led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, a pan-Nigerian nationalist whose stronghold was the Eastern Region.
Despite nationalist rhetoric, these parties functioned largely as regional power blocs. Federal politics became a struggle for dominance between regions, with alliances shifting according to regional advantage. This imbalance made national unity precarious.
The 1962–1963 Western Region Crisis
The Western Region became the flashpoint of Nigeria’s first major political collapse. A bitter rift emerged within the Action Group (AG) between Awolowo and his deputy, Chief Samuel Ladoke Akintola, the regional premier.
The disagreement centred on political strategy:
- Awolowowanted the AG to remain a disciplined opposition at the federal level.
- Akintolapreferred collaboration with the ruling NPC to maintain influence in the West.
Tensions between their supporters escalated into street violence and disrupted parliamentary sessions in Ibadan, the regional capital.
In May 1962, the federal government under Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa declared a state of emergency in the Western Region, suspended the regional government, and appointed Dr. Moses Majekodunmi as sole administrator.
While constitutionally permissible, the move was widely seen as politically motivated to weaken Awolowo’s camp. The emergency was lifted in December 1962, and Akintola was reinstated as Premier in January 1963 with federal backing.
Shortly after, Awolowo and several associates were arrested and convicted of treasonable felony (1963), a trial many Nigerians regarded as politically driven. The episode deepened public distrust and set a precedent for political persecution and thuggery in regional politics.
Census Controversy and the Politics of Numbers
Between 1962 and 1963, Nigeria’s first post-independence census triggered another national crisis. Allegations of inflated figures, particularly in the Northern Region, led to acrimony between regions, each seeking to secure more parliamentary seats and federal revenue allocations.
The dispute reinforced perceptions of northern domination and intensified political rivalries ahead of the 1964 general elections. Though officially settled with the 1963 figures accepted by Parliament, public confidence in the fairness of federal institutions eroded further.
Operation “Wet e” and the Rise of Political Violence
By 1964–1965, Western politics had degenerated into violent confrontation. Armed gangs and “area boys” loyal to rival factions attacked opponents and disrupted political events.
The phrase “Operation Wet e”, meaning “soak him with petrol” in Yoruba street slang, emerged during the chaos surrounding the 1965 Western Region elections, when mobs burned perceived enemies alive.
The violence, concentrated in Ibadan, Oyo, Ondo, and Ekiti, saw widespread arson, looting, and murder. Electoral offices were attacked, ballot boxes destroyed, and homes of politicians set ablaze.
This breakdown of law and order normalised violence as a political tool, eroding any remaining faith in democratic institutions.
The 1964 Federal Elections: A Nation Polarised
Nigeria’s first post-independence federal elections, held in December 1964, exposed the deep fragility of the republic. Two rival alliances contested control:
- Nigerian National Alliance (NNA):Dominated by the NPC and Akintola’s Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP).
- United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA):Comprising the NCNC, AG, and several minority parties.
The campaign was marred by intimidation, boycotts, and manipulation. In the North, many UPGA candidates could not freely campaign; in parts of the East, NPC candidates faced hostility or were rejected outright.
After the NNA declared victory, opposition parties denounced the results as fraudulent. President Azikiwe, though constitutionally required to appoint a Prime Minister, initially refused to call Balewa to form a new government, citing electoral irregularities. He eventually relented to avoid a constitutional vacuum.
The elections marked a decisive turning point, undermining electoral legitimacy and entrenching the regional polarisation that would later invite military intervention.
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The 1965 Western Region Elections and the “Wild Wild West”
The October 1965 Western Region elections were catastrophic. Akintola’s NNDP, backed by the federal government, faced the UPGA, loyal to Awolowo’s imprisoned faction.
Reports of ballot stuffing, intimidation, and falsified results were rampant. When Akintola’s party was declared winner, violent protests erupted across the West. Towns such as Ibadan, Akure, and Owo descended into chaos.
Journalists dubbed the region the “Wild Wild West.” Police were accused of partisanship, while the federal government failed to restore order. By late 1965, the authority of civilian institutions in the West had completely collapsed.
The January 1966 Coup and the Fall of the First Republic
In the early hours of 15 January 1966, a group of young army officers led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu in Kaduna staged Nigeria’s first military coup.
The plotters claimed to act against corruption, election rigging, and political chaos. However, the coup’s execution appeared regionally biased, as it resulted in the assassination of Prime Minister Balewa, Northern Premier Ahmadu Bello, Western Premier Akintola, and several top officers, most of them northerners.
The coup failed to achieve full control in Lagos, but succeeded in the North. In its aftermath, Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, the army’s most senior officer, assumed power as Head of State on 16 January 1966.
The First Republic, barely six years old, had collapsed.
Key Figures of the First Republic
- Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa:Prime Minister (1960–66); admired for moderation but criticised for indecisiveness.
- Sir Ahmadu Bello:Sardauna of Sokoto and Premier of the North; a key defender of northern autonomy.
- Nnamdi Azikiwe:Nigeria’s first President; an inspirational nationalist with a largely ceremonial role under the republican system.
- Chief Obafemi Awolowo:AG leader; visionary in policy and federalism, but politically sidelined after 1963 imprisonment.
- Chief S.L. Akintola:Western Premier; his feud with Awolowo triggered the Western crisis that helped bring down the Republic.
Legacy and Lessons
The collapse of Nigeria’s First Republic revealed the fragility of its democratic foundations. Ethnicised politics, electoral fraud, and regional distrust eroded national unity. Political violence, unchecked by impartial policing or strong institutions, made democracy unsustainable.
When the military intervened in 1966, many Nigerians welcomed it as a “corrective measure”, unaware it would usher in decades of military rule.
The central lesson endures: Democracy cannot survive without credible elections, inclusive governance, and institutions that rise above regional loyalties.
The story of Nigeria’s First Republic remains a powerful reminder of how hope can falter when political competition turns into violence.
Author’s Note
By 1966, violence had replaced dialogue, and the army’s intervention, initially seen as a rescue, ushered in years of authoritarian rule. Yet the issues that doomed the First Republic, corruption, exclusion, and distrust between regions, still echo in Nigeria’s modern politics. The enduring lesson is clear: democracy cannot thrive on paper alone. It requires justice, fair elections, and leadership that rises above ethnic and regional divisions. Only by confronting these old fault lines can Nigeria build the stable and inclusive democracy its founders once envisioned.
References:
Anglin, Douglas G. Brinkmanship in Nigeria: The Federal Elections of 1964–65. University of Toronto Press, 1965.
Dawodu Archive. “State of Emergency in the Western Region (1962–1963).”
Falola, Toyin & Heaton, Matthew M. A History of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Dudley, Billy J. Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria. Frank Cass, 1968.
Sklar, Richard L. Nigerian Political Parties. Princeton University Press, 1963.
