From the moment British power extended over the territories that would become Nigeria, resistance followed. The imposition of colonial rule, through conquest, taxation, and indirect governance, disrupted long-established political systems, trade networks, and social hierarchies. Across Nigeria’s diverse regions, communities mounted armed uprisings, women organized mass protests, and later generations of nationalists fought with words, strikes, and political organization. Together, these movements forged the path to Nigeria’s independence and continue to shape its national memory.
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1. Background: Empire and Encounter
Before colonization, the area now known as Nigeria contained powerful and sophisticated political systems. The Sokoto Caliphate governed much of the north under Islamic law; the Yoruba city-states of the southwest, such as Oyo and Ibadan, maintained dynamic urban centers; and the Kingdom of Benin and the Aro Confederacy dominated trade and diplomacy in the south.
British penetration began through commerce, Christian missions, and treaties. By the late nineteenth century, competition for resources and imperial influence culminated in the Royal Niger Company’s control of the Niger territories. Following the Berlin Conference (1884–1885), Britain consolidated its claim by merging these regions into the Protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria, achieved through both negotiation and military conquest.
2. Early Armed Resistance (1880s–1914)
The Benin Kingdom and the 1897 Expedition
In February 1897, a British military expedition invaded Benin City following the ambush of a British delegation. The punitive campaign led to the destruction of Benin’s palaces, the exile of Oba Ovonramwen, and the looting of thousands of Benin bronzes. While the British justified the attack as retaliation, historians recognize it as part of a broader imperial effort to dismantle indigenous political autonomy and seize control of trade. The fall of Benin marked a critical step in Britain’s consolidation of southern Nigeria.
The Anglo-Aro War (1901–1902)
In southeastern Nigeria, the Aro Confederacy, known for its trading network and religious influence through the Arochukwu oracle, resisted British interference. The British accused the Aro of obstructing commerce and suppressing anti-slavery measures, leading to a full-scale invasion in 1901–1902. The defeat of the Aro forces opened the hinterlands to colonial administration, though the Aro influence persisted socially and economically for decades.
The Ekumeku Movement
Between the 1880s and 1914, the Anioma (Western Igbo) region witnessed sustained guerrilla resistance known as the Ekumeku Movement. Organized through secret societies and local war leaders, the movement fought British encroachment and punitive expeditions in towns such as Ibusa, Ogwashi-Uku, and Onitsha-Olona. Though eventually suppressed, Ekumeku demonstrated the determination of local communities to preserve autonomy and resist colonial taxation and forced labour.
3. Everyday Defiance and Women’s Protests
Not all resistance took the form of open warfare. Many Nigerians engaged in everyday defiance, refusing to pay taxes, deserting colonial labour projects, or protecting local markets from foreign control.
The 1929 Women’s War (Aba Women’s Protests)
One of the most significant nonviolent uprisings occurred in southeastern Nigeria in late 1929. Thousands of Igbo and Ibibio women mobilized against colonial “warrant chiefs,” taxation plans, and the erosion of women’s traditional political influence. Using indigenous protest tactics, such as “sitting on a man” and collective song, the women forced the colonial government to abandon plans for female taxation and reform the warrant chief system.
The protest, decentralized and largely spontaneous, was not led by a single leader but by networks of market women who coordinated across towns. It remains a landmark in African women’s political history.
4. From Local Revolts to Nationalism (1920s–1940s)
By the 1920s, Nigerian resistance had evolved beyond local revolts into organized political movements. Western-educated elites, urban professionals, and labour unions began to articulate anti-colonial demands through newspapers, civic organizations, and strikes.
Herbert Macaulay and Early Nationalism
Herbert Macaulay, often called the father of Nigerian nationalism, founded the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) in 1923. His activism in Lagos challenged colonial control over municipal governance and inspired later generations of political leaders.
The Press and Political Consciousness
The rise of nationalist newspapers, such as West African Pilot, founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe in 1937, spread political awareness across the country. Azikiwe’s journalism combined education with agitation, fostering pan-Nigerian identity and challenging colonial racial hierarchies.
Labour Movements and Mass Mobilization
Labour strikes became crucial tools of resistance. The 1945 General Strike, led by trade unionist Michael Imoudu, united workers across ethnic and regional lines to demand fair wages and political rights. These movements demonstrated that resistance was not limited to elites but rooted in popular grievances against economic exploitation.
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5. The Transition to Organized Politics (1940s–1950s)
Post–World War II reforms expanded Nigerian political participation. Leaders such as Obafemi Awolowo (Action Group), Nnamdi Azikiwe (NCNC), and Ahmadu Bello (NPC) built mass political parties that represented regional and ethnic interests while negotiating constitutional progress toward self-government.
The nationalist struggle combined diplomacy, public protest, and constitutional negotiations, culminating in Nigeria’s independence in 1960. The process was the cumulative outcome of decades of diverse resistance, armed, economic, social, and political, rather than the work of a single figure or movement.
6. Legacy and Contemporary Relevance
The legacy of Nigeria’s anti-colonial movements remains profound.
- The Benin Expeditionsymbolizes the violence of imperial conquest and continues to animate debates about cultural restitution.
- The Women’s Warremains a touchstone of feminist activism and community organizing.
- Labour and nationalist movementsset precedents for democratic struggle and political participation.
Together, these histories illustrate how Nigerians, across gender, region, and class, challenged colonial domination in multiple ways. Their courage and organization laid the groundwork for modern Nigeria’s identity and political institutions.
Author’s Note
Resistance to British rule in Nigeria was never a single story but a mosaic of determination and defiance. From the battlefields of Benin and Arochukwu to the market squares of Aba and the offices of nationalist newspapers, Nigerians confronted empire in every sphere of life. These struggles, military, economic, and intellectual, collectively forged the foundation of independence and continue to inspire movements for justice and equality in Nigeria today.
References:
Afigbo, A.E. The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria, 1891–1929. London: Longman, 1972.
Igbafe, Philip. Benin under British Administration. London: Longman, 1979.
Ohadike, Don C. The Ekumeku Movement: Western Igbo Resistance to the British Conquest of Nigeria, 1883–1914. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1991.
Falola, Toyin & Heaton, Matthew. A History of Nigeria. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Tamuno, T.N. Nigerian Federalism in Historical Perspective. Ibadan: University Press, 1989.
