When Nigeria attained independence from Britain on 1 October 1960, it adopted a parliamentary democracy modelled on the Westminster system. The federation comprised three principal regions Northern, Western, and Eastern, each led by a dominant political party aligned largely with the region’s ethnic majority: the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), and the Action Group (AG).
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Although united in the struggle for self-government, these parties were regional in structure and outlook. The NPC drew most of its support from Hausa-Fulani Muslims in the North; the NCNC from the Igbo-dominated East; and the AG from the Yoruba West. Each promoted regional interests under the banner of national unity, creating a federation where politics increasingly became a contest among regional elites.
The early post-independence period thus featured fragile coalitions, ideological friction, and growing mistrust. Examining the roles of NPC, NCNC, and AG sheds light on Nigeria’s first democratic experiment and the persistent challenge of integrating diverse regions.
The Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
The NPC evolved from Jam’iyyar Mutanen Arewa, a northern cultural association formed to protect the interests of traditional rulers and the conservative elite. Under Sir Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto, the party promoted gradual modernisation while preserving Islamic and customary authority.
In the decisive 1959 federal elections, the NPC secured the largest number of seats in the House of Representatives, largely owing to the North’s large population. Although NPC held the Premiership in the Northern Region (Bello), its deputy, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, assumed the office of Prime Minister of the federal government upon independence.
Balewa’s administration placed a premium on political stability, administrative continuity, and cooperation with Britain. However, many in the South perceived NPC dominance, especially its control in parliament and bureaucracy, as an attempt to entrench Northern hegemony. Those perceptions aggravated regional suspicion and made a genuine national consensus harder to achieve.
The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)
Founded in 1944, the NCNC under Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe was one of Nigeria’s first mass nationalist organisations. Initially pan-Nigerian in scope, by the late 1950s its strongest base lay in the Eastern Region, though it retained influence elsewhere.
After independence, NCNC entered into a coalition with NPC to help form the federal government. Azikiwe became Governor-General, and later, when Nigeria became a republic in 1963, Ceremonial President. The alliance was a pragmatic arrangement: it granted NPC a broader national legitimacy and allowed NCNC access to power at the centre.
NCNC advocated economic nationalism, regional autonomy under federalism, and mass education. The Eastern Region, via the Eastern Nigeria Development Corporation, launched several industrial projects. Nevertheless, many of these met challenges limited infrastructure, funding constraints, and sometimes managerial difficulties. Consequently, while the NCNC’s ideology promised bold change, its practical impact was often uneven. Moreover, some southern voters viewed the coalition with NPC as compromising nationalist ideals, and internal dissension and generational tension within NCNC weakened its unity over time.
The Action Group (AG)
The Action Group, formed in 1951 under Chief Obafemi Awolowo, led the Western Region. Ideologically, AG embraced progressive federalism, strong investment in education, and social welfare. One of its most famous programmes was the Free Universal Primary Education launched in January 1955. Under Awolowo’s leadership, the Western administration invested heavily in expanding primary school enrolments, building schools, training teachers, and improving infrastructure.
AG also promoted agricultural reform, regional industrial initiative ventures, and development boards to support export crops. However, its industrialisation was limited and often dependent on external capital and markets. AG’s efforts to expand nationally challenged both NPC and NCNC. The internal split between Awolowo and his deputy, Chief Samuel Ladoke Akintola, in 1962 triggered the Western Region Crisis. After unrest and political violence, the federal government declared a state of emergency. Awolowo’s arrest and trial on charges of treasonable felony in 1962-63 (though many viewed them as politically motivated) marked a turning point, weakening AG’s capacity as an opposition force and altering the political balance of the First Republic.
Economic and Social Developments
Nigeria’s economy during the First Republic was agrarian at its core. Agriculture was the primary source of export earnings, employment, and regional revenue. However, precise measurements of GDP share by agriculture and exact percentages of exports vary among sources; the often-cited figures of “60% of GDP” or “70% of exports” appear inflated in some accounts.
Each region pursued development paths reflecting party ideology:
- NPC focused on traditional agriculture (groundnuts, cotton), strengthening local structures, and gradual reform.
- NCNC sought to diversify with manufacturing, trade, and industry in the East, though often constrained by infrastructure and capital shortages.
- AG built on education, welfare, marketing boards, and modest industrial ventures in the West.
The regions did not fully isolate themselves; trade across regions and federal institutions linked them. Nevertheless, revenue allocation controversies, population census disputes, and educational disparities increased friction. The Western Region’s early investments in free primary education significantly outpaced those of the North, contributing to educational and social inequality.
Colonial Influence
Colonial rule left several legacies. The British policy of indirect rule preserved regional power structures and ethnic hierarchies, especially in the North. The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution devolved significant powers to regions, cementing regional autonomy. The colonial economic model was regionally specialised: each region produced certain export crops or goods depending on climate and colonial trade links. These inherited structures made competition for central power and resources almost inevitable.
Legacy
The roles and rivalry of NPC, NCNC, and AG had lasting effects:
- Regionalism and Federal Character: The divisions among regions during the First Republic informed later constitutional designs to ensure regional balance.
- Coalition Politics: The NPC-NCNC alliance set precedents for inter-party collaboration and compromise that remain part of Nigeria’s multiparty practice.
- Ethno-Political Identity: Ethnic loyalty proved more potent than ideology in many disputes and elections.
- Institutional Fragility: Weak dispute resolution mechanisms, contested elections, and fragmented parties demonstrated vulnerabilities in democratic governance.
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Author’s Note
The NPC, NCNC, and AG were both architects and casualties of Nigeria’s first democratic experiment. Their competing visions, conservative, nationalist, and progressive, reflected both the potential and fragility of the new nation. While rivalry among them fractured national agreement, their contributions to political mobilisation, education, and regional development laid the foundations for subsequent democratic efforts. Their experience underscores Nigeria’s enduring challenge: forging unity without suppressing diversity and sustaining democracy amid powerful regional interests.
References
Coleman, James S. Nigeria: Background to Nationalism. University of California Press, 1958.
Sklar, Richard L. Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation. Princeton University Press, 1963.
Dudley, Billy J. Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria. Routledge, 1968.
